Clauses and Conjunctions

Zero Conditional

We use the zero conditional to talk about something that is generally or always true — facts, rules and habits.

Whenever the condition is true, something happens. Look at these examples:

• If you heat ice, it melts.
• If it rains, the ground gets wet.
• If I drink coffee at night, I don't sleep well.

How to make it

The basic pattern is:

→ If + condition, → result.
→ If + present simple → present simple.

• If you heat water to 100°C, it boils.
• If you press this button, the machine stops.
• If I am tired, I go to bed early.

• When you heat ice, it melts.

Word order

We can put the if-clause first or second:

• If + condition, → result.
  If it rains, the ground gets wet.
• Result + if + condition.
  The ground gets wet if it rains.

When the if-clause comes first, we normally use a comma after it.

Quick reference
The zero conditional describes something that is generally or always true.
We can use two forms:

• If/When + present simple (condition), → present simple (result).
  If you heat ice, it melts.
• Present simple (result) + if/when + present simple (condition).
  Ice melts if you heat it.

First Conditional

We use the first conditional to talk about a real or possible situation in the future and what will, may or can happen as a result.

If the condition happens, the result is possible or likely. Look at these examples:

• If you study, you will pass the test.
• If I see Anna, I will tell her.

How to make it

The basic pattern is:

→ If + condition, → result.
→ If + present simple, → will + infinitive / modal / imperative.

• If you finish early, you will have more free time.
• If she calls me, I will answer.
• If we leave now, we will arrive on time.

• If you finish early, you can go home.
• If you are tired, you should rest.
• If you see Tom, call me.

Word order

We can put the if-clause first or second:

• If + condition, → result.
  If I have time, I will help you.
• Result + if + condition.
  I will help you if I have time.

When the if-clause comes first, we normally use a comma after it.

Quick reference
The first conditional describes a real or possible future situation and its possible result.
The most common pattern is:

• If + present simple (condition) → will + infinitive / imperative / modal (result).
  If you study, you will pass the test.
• Will + infinitive / imperative / modal (result) + if + present simple (condition).
  You will pass the test if you study.

Wish Clauses

We use wish when we want reality to be different from how it is. The verb form after wish tells us what we want to be different: a different present situation, a change in someone's behaviour, a different ability or possibility, or a different past.

Look at these examples:

• I don't have enough money. → I wish I had more money.
• I can't speak Japanese. → I wish I could speak Japanese.
• My brother never helps me. → I wish he would help me more.
• I didn't study enough. → I wish I had studied more.

Present wishes

When we want the present situation to be different, we normally use:
→ wish + past simple

• I wish I had more free time.
• She wishes she lived closer to school.
• We wish we knew the answer.

The past simple here does not refer to the past. It shows that the present reality is different from what we want.

Careful: Were is traditionally used for hypothetical wishes, especially in careful or formal English:

• I wish I were taller.
• I wish she were here.

In informal English, was is also common with I, he, she and it, but were is the standard form to teach for hypothetical wishes.

If we want a present situation or someone's behaviour to change (often while expressing annoyance or impatience), we use:
→ wish + would

• I wish you would stop shouting.
• I wish my neighbours would keep it down.
• I wish the bus would come.

We can also use wish + could when we want a different ability or possibility:

• I wish I could speak Japanese.
• She wishes she could drive.
• We wish we could stay longer.

Past wishes

When we regret something in the past and imagine that it had happened differently, we use:
→ wish + past perfect

• I didn't study enough. → I wish I had studied more.
• She said something rude. → She wishes she hadn't said it.
• We left too late. → We wish we had left earlier.

The past cannot be changed, so we are imagining a different past.

When the verb is have, the past perfect form is had had:

• I wish I had had more time yesterday.

Compare the two time references:

• I don't have enough money. → I wish I had more money. = present
• I didn't have enough money yesterday. → I wish I had had more money. = past

Quick reference
The form after wish depends on what we want to be different:

• we want to change the present:
  • wish + past simple
    I wish I had more time.
  • wish + would when we want to change present situations or behaviour
    I wish you would listen.
  • wish + could when we wish for a different ability or possibility.
    I wish I could stay longer.
• we regret the past and imagine it differently:
  
  • wish + past perfect
    I wish I had studied more.

Clauses Using -ing and -ed

We can use -ing and -ed clauses to give more information about a person or thing. They are often used instead of a longer relative clause.

Look at these examples:

• The woman wearing a pink jacket is my aunt.
  = The woman who is wearing a pink jacket is my aunt.
• The report written by Mr Willis is on the table.
  = The report that was written by Mr Willis is on the table.

The important difference is the meaning:

• noun + -ing → the noun does the action = active meaning
  The man driving the car is my uncle.
  The road leading to Bath is under construction.
  
• noun + -ed → the noun receives the action = passive meaning
  The car damaged in the accident is mine.
  The girls invited to the party refused to come.

Quick reference

• -ing = active: the noun does the action.
• -ed = passive: the noun receives the action.

Relative Clauses

We use relative clauses to give more information about a person, thing, place, time, reason or possession. They usually come directly after the noun they describe.

Relative clauses often begin with words such as who, which, that, whose, where, when or why.

• The woman who lives next door is my aunt.
• The book that I bought is very interesting.
• This is the town where I grew up.
• 1999 was the year when I was born.
• That's the reason why I left.
• He's the man whose daughter works here.

The relative word connects the noun to the information that follows it. The choice depends on what we are referring to and the role of the word in the clause.

Prepositions with relative pronouns

A relative pronoun can also come after a preposition. This structure is especially common in more formal English.

• This is the house in which I grew up.
• The company for which she works is based in London.
• The chair on which he was sitting was broken.

When we refer to people, we normally use whom after a preposition in formal English:

• The man with whom I travelled was very friendly.
• The woman to whom I spoke was the manager.

In everyday English, we usually put the preposition at the end of the relative clause and use who instead:

• The man who I travelled with was very friendly.
• The woman who I spoke to was the manager.

Which referring to a whole clause

Which does not always refer to a single noun. It can also refer to a whole situation, action or idea mentioned before it. When which refers to the whole previous clause, we put a comma before it.

• He forgot my birthday, which makes me sad. = The fact that he forgot my birthday makes me sad.
• She passed all her exams, which surprised everyone. = The fact that she passed all her exams surprised everyone.
• They cancelled the flight, which caused a lot of problems. = The cancellation of the flight caused a lot of problems.

In these examples, which refers to the whole previous clause, not just to the noun immediately before it.

Commas in relative clauses

Relative clauses can be either defining or non-defining. This determines whether we use commas.

A defining relative clause tells us which particular person or thing we mean. The information is necessary to identify the person or thing, so we do not use commas.

• The students who passed the exam can leave. = Only the students who passed the exam can leave.
• The book that I bought yesterday is very interesting. = The relative clause identifies which book we mean.
• People who exercise regularly often feel better.

A non-defining relative clause gives only extra information. We already know which person or thing we mean without this information, so the relative clause is separated by commas.

• My sister, who lives in London, is a doctor. = We already know who we are talking about; living in London is extra information.
• Paris, which is the capital of France, attracts millions of tourists.
• Mr Brown, who teaches us English, is absent today.

If a non-defining relative clause comes in the middle of a sentence, we put a comma before and after it. If it comes at the end of the sentence, we only need a comma before it.

• My brother, who works in Germany, is coming home tomorrow.
• I spoke to Anna, who works in Germany.

We normally do not use that in non-defining relative clauses. We use words such as who or which instead.

• My car, which is ten years old, still works perfectly.

Shortened relative clauses

In some cases, relative clauses can also be shortened:

• The woman sitting by the window is my aunt.
• The goods made in this factory are exported.

Conjunctions of Concession and Contrast

These conjunctions show a contrast or introduce a fact that is surprising in relation to the main idea.

• although / even though → contrast:
  Although it was raining, we went out.
• despite / in spite of → contrast despite a circumstance:
  We went out despite the rain.
• though → contrast, often used at the end of a sentence:
  I didn't like the film. It was well made, though.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases or clauses of equal grammatical importance.

Commas: use a comma before the conjunction when it joins two complete clauses:
I was tired, so I went to bed.
No comma when it only joins words or parts of the same clause:
She sang and danced.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases or clauses of equal grammatical importance.

Commas: use a comma before the conjunction when it joins two complete clauses:
I was tired, so I went to bed.
No comma when it only joins words or parts of the same clause:
She sang and danced.